LA different set of strategic thinking frames can be added to the history ‘toolbox’ in order to help students construct arguments. These thinking frames are important because they help students speak, think and write at a higher level. Once again, students need to think carefully about fitness for purpose, developing understanding of which approach fits each type of question or activity.

For example:

• Layers of inference diagrams – help students make inferences from a source

See example Page KP3-a

• Concept Maps are a great way for students to see and explain the links between causes. The visual experience of creating and using such maps makes more complex thinking accessible than trying to hold the ideas in your head.

See example Page KP3-b

• Concept maps can also be used to help establish the significance of key discoveries, events or developments.

See example Page KP3-c

• Diamond Nines help pupils prioritise causes but it’s important to be flexible and enable students to choose the pattern of causes that suits the explanation.

See example Page KP3-d

• Language continuums help students think more precisely about their argument and develop the ability to use precise vocabulary. For example do they agree totally, mainly or partially with a statement or interpretation? Did a particular period see overwhelming, fundamental, significant, important or minimal change?

See example Page KP3-e

• Argument Bridges helps students build well-organised, sustained and coherent arguments.

See example Page KP3-f

There should be a strong focus on speaking and listening during the phase when students are constructing arguments. Talk is important in building children’s powers to think and reason. Debates and discussions help to generate ideas and construct arguments that may otherwise have remained incomplete if they remained as unarticulated thoughts. Such tasks help students shape their learning and understanding in a low-risk activity, whilst at the same time keeping them involved and motivated. These reasons for activities need to be explained to students so that they understand why such activities are taking place. There’s a similarity here to teachers ‘thinking out loud’ by explaining the thought processes they go through when constructing arguments and selecting evidence in answer to questions.

‘Talk for writing’ strategies are therefore tremendously helpful. When a student makes a statement or answers a question, we need to prompt them to speak like a historian.  This means not only using subject-specific key words but also using language in a way that a historian would.  Modelling the process and encouraging students to re-phrase their arguments using academic language is crucial.  Do this by challenging pupils to be more precise and considered with their use of language when expressing arguments. They should find some interpretations ‘compelling’ as opposed to ‘well good’, whilst counter arguments should not begin by labelling opposing interpretations as ‘rubbish’ or ‘stupid’. Instead encourage students to articulate the specific ‘limitations’ of an interpretation that they do not agree with or ‘the lack of convincing evidence’ to support it. High quality talk should lead to high quality writing.

Within schemes of work, teachers should make a conscious effort to position speaking and listening activities before written tasks. In addition, look for opportunities to discuss differing interpretations and controversy and hold debates. For example, at the end of an enquiry into how Hitler kept control of Nazi Germany debate who was his key henchman – Goebbels or Himmler?

See example Page KP3-g and h

When exploring opposition to Hitler discuss which group represented the biggest threat. The following Scheme of Work shows how debates were built into each unit of the Germany 1918-45 depth study.

See example Page KP3-i

The nature of debates can take different formats. For example, when evaluating the significance of individuals in Medicine a balloon debate could be set up or a ‘Big Brother House’ - where students have to enter the video diary room and explain why their individual is so important that they should stay in the ‘significance house’.